Aaron Copland was born in Brooklyn, New York, of Lithuanian Jewish descent in 1900, the last of five children. Before emigrating from Scotland to the United States, Copland's father Anglicized his surname “Kaplan” to “Copland”.[1] Throughout his childhood, Copland and his family lived above his parents' Brooklyn shop (a neighborhood “Macy’s”), on the corner of Dean Street and Washington Avenue[2] and all the children helped out in the store. His father was a staunch Democrat. The family members were active in Congregation Baith Israel Anshei Emes, where Aaron celebrated his Bar Mitzvah.[3] Not especially athletic, the sensitive young man became an avid reader and often read Horatio Alger stories on his front steps.[4]
Copland’s father had no musical interest at all but his mother sang and played the piano, and arranged for music lessons for her children. Of his siblings, oldest brother Ralph was the most advanced musically, proficient on the violin, while his sister Laurine had the strongest connection with Aaron, giving him his first piano lessons, promoting his musical education, and supporting him in his musical career.[5] She attended the Metropolitan Opera School and was a frequent opera goer. She often brought home libretti for Aaron to study.[6] Copland attended Boys’ High School and in the summer went to various camps. Most of his early exposure to music was at Jewish weddings and ceremonies, and occasional family musicales.[7]
At the age of eleven, Copland devised an opera scenario he called Zenatello, which included seven bars of music, his first notated melody.[8] He took music lessons with Leopold Wolfsohn between 1913 and 1917, who taught him the standard classical fare. Copland first public music performance was at a Wanamaker recital.[9]
By 15, after attending a concert by composer-pianist Ignacy Paderewski, Copland decided to become a composer.[10] After attempts to further his music study from a correspondence course, Copland took formal lessons in harmony, theory, and composition from Rubin Goldmark, a noted teacher and composer of American music (who had given George Gershwin three lessons). Goldmark gave the young Copland a solid foundation, especially in the Germanic tradition, as he stated later, “This was a stroke of luck for me. I was spared the floundering that so many musicians have suffered through incompetent teaching.”[11] But Copland also commented that the maestro had “little sympathy for the advanced musical idioms of the day” and his “approved” composers ended with Richard Strauss.[12]
Copland’s graduation piece from his studies with Goldmark was a three-movement piano sonata, in a Romantic style, but he had also composed more original and daring pieces which he did not share with his teacher.[13] In addition to regularly attendance at the Metropolitan Opera and the New York Symphony where he heard the standard classical repertory, Copland continued his musical development through an expanding circle of musical friends. After he graduated from high school, Copland played in dance bands.[14] Continuing his musical education, Copland received further piano lessons from Victor Wittgenstein, who found his student to be “quiet, shy, well-mannered, and gracious in accepting criticism.”[15] Copland’s fascination with the Russian Revolution and its promise for freeing the lower classes drew a rebuke from his father and uncles.[16] In spite of that, in his early adult life Copland would develop friendships with people with socialist and communist leanings.[17]
Studying in Paris
From 1917 to 1921, Copland composed juvenile works of short piano pieces and art songs.[18] Copland’s passion for the latest European music, plus glowing letters from his friend Aaron Schaffer, inspired him to go to Paris for further study.[19] His father wanted him to go to college but instead, his mother’s vote in the family conference allowed him to give Paris a try. On arriving in France, he studied with Paul Vidal at the Fontainebleau School of Music, but finding him too much like Goldmark, he switched to famed teacher Nadia Boulanger (thirty-four at the time). He had initial reservations, “No one to my knowledge had ever before thought of studying with a woman.”[20] She interviewed him, and recalled later, “One could tell his talent immediately.”[21]
Boulanger had as many as forty students at once and employed a formal regimen that Copland had to follow, too. Copland found her incisive mind much to his liking and stated, “this intellectual Amazon is not only professor at the Conservatoire, is not only familiar with all music from Bach to Stravinsky, but is prepared for anything worse in the way of dissonance. But make no mistake…A more charming womanly woman never lived.”[22] Though he planned on only one year abroad, he studied with her for three years, finding her eclectic approach to inspire his own broad musical taste.
Adding to the heady cultural atmosphere of the early 1920s in Paris was the presence of expatriate American writers Ernest Hemingway, Sinclair Lewis, Gertrude Stein, and Ezra Pound, as well as artists like Picasso, Chagall, and Modigliani.[23] Also influential on the new music were the French intellectuals Marcel Proust, Paul Valéry, Sartre, and André Gide, the latter cited by Copland as being his personal favorite and most read.[24] Travel to Italy, Austria, and Germany rounded out Copland’s musical education. During his stay in Paris, Copland began writing musical critiques, the first on Gabriel Fauré, which helped spread his fame and stature in the music community.[25] Instead of wallowing in self-pity and self-destruction like many of the expatriate members of the Lost Generation, Copland returned to America optimistic and enthusiastic about the future.[26]
Career between 1925 and 1950
Upon returning to America, Copland was determined to make his way as a full-time composer. He rented a studio apartment on the Upper West Side, his home area for the next three decades, which kept him close to Carnegie Hall and other musical venues and publishers (later he would move to Westchester County). He lived frugally and survived financially with help from a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1925 and again in 1926, each worth $2,500.[27] Lecture-recitals, awards, appointments and small commissions, plus some teaching, writing, and personal loans kept him afloat in the subsequent years through World War II.[28] Also important were wealthy patrons who supported the arts community during the Depression, underwriting performances, publication, and promotion of musical events and composers.[29]
Copland’s compositions in the early 1920s reflected the prevailing "modernist" attitude among intellectuals that they were an small vanguard leading the way for the masses, who would only come to appreciate their efforts over time. In this view, music and the other arts need be only to be accessible to a select cadre of the enlightened. Toward this end, Copland formed the Young Composer’s Group, modeled after France's “Six”, gathering together promising young composers, acting as their guiding spirit.[30]
Soon after his return, Copland was introduced to the artistic circle of Alfred Steiglitz and met many of the leading artists of that time. Steiglitz’s conviction that the American artist should reflect “the ideas of American Democracy” influenced Copland and a whole generation of artists and photographers, including Paul Strand, Edward Weston, Ansel Adams, Georgia O’Keefe, Walker Evans.[31] Copland was directly inspired by the photographs of Walker Evans in his opera The Tender Land.[32]
In his quest to take up Steiglitz’s challenge, Copland had few established American contemporaries to emulate apart from Carl Ruggles and reclusive Charles Ives, although the 1920s were Golden Years for American popular music and jazz, with George Gershwin and Louis Armstrong leading the way.[33] Later, however, Copland joined up with his younger contemporaries, and formed a group termed the “commando unit”, which included Roger Sessions, Roy Harris, Virgil Thomson, and Walter Piston.[34] They collaborated in joint concerts showcasing their work to new audiences.
Copland’s relationship with the “commando unit” was one of both support and rivalry, and he played a key role in keeping them together. The five young American composers helped promote each other and their works but also had testy exchanges, inflamed by the assertion of the press that Copland was the “truly American” composer.[35] Going beyond the five, Copland was generous with his time with nearly every American young composer he met during his life, later earning the title the “Dean of American Music”.[36]
Mounting troubles with the Symphonic Ode (1929) and Short Symphony (1933) caused him to rethink the paradigm of composing orchestral music for a select group, as it was financially contradictory approach, particularly in the Depression. In many ways, this shift mirrored the German idea of Gebrauchsmusik (“music for use”) as composers sought to create music that could serve a utilitarian as well as artistic purpose. This approach encompassed two trends: one—music that students could easily learn, and two—music which would have wider appeal (incidental music for plays, movies, radio, etc.).[37] Copland undertook both goals, starting in the mid 1930s.
Perhaps also motivated by the plight of children during the Depression, around 1935 Copland began to compose musical pieces for young audiences, in accordance with the first goal of American Gebrauchsmusik. These works included piano pieces (The Young Pioneers) and an opera (The Second Hurricane).[38]
During the Depression years, Copland traveled extensively to Europe, Africa, and Mexico. He formed an important friendship with Mexican composer Carlos Chavez and would return often to Mexico on working vacations and to conduct.[39] During his initial visit to Mexico, Copland began composing the first of his signature works, El Salón México, which he completed four years later in 1936. This and other incidental commissions fulfilled the second goal of American Gebrauchsmusik, creating music of wide appeal.
During this time, he composed (for radio broadcast) "Prairie Journal", a piece which was one of his first to convey a Western flavor.[40] Branching out into theater, Copland also played an important role providing musical advice and inspiration to The Group Theater—Stella Adler’s and Lee Strasberg’s “method” acting school.[41] The Group Theater followed Copland’s musical agenda and focused on plays that illuminated the American experience. After Hitler and Mussolini's attacks on Spain in 1936, leftist parties had united in a Popular Front against Fascism. Many Group Theater members were influenced by Marxism and other progressive philosophies, and several had joined the Communist Party, including Elia Kazan and Clifford Odets.[42] Copland also had contact later with other major American playwrights, including Thorton Wilder, William Inge, Arthur Miller, and Edward Albee and considered projects with all of them.[43] During the 1930s, Copland wrote incidental music for several plays, including Irwin Shaw’s "Quiet City" (1939), considered one of his most personal and poignant scores.[44]
In 1939, Copland completed his first two Hollywood film scores, for Of Mice and Men and Our Town, and received sizable commissions. But it wasn’t until the worldwide market for classical recordings boomed after World War II, however, that he achieved economic security. Even after securing a comfortable income, he continued to write, teach, lecture, and eventually conduct.[45] In the same year, he composed the radio score "John Henry", based on the folk ballad.[46]
Demonstrating his broad range, in the 1930s Copland began composing for ballet, with his highly successful Billy the Kid (1939), the second of four ballets he scored (his "Hear Ye! Hear Ye!" (1934) was his first ballet score).[47] Copland’s ballet music had much the same effect of establishing Copland as an authentic composer of American music as Stravinsky’s ballet scores did for Russian music.[48] Copland’s timing was excellent. He helped fill a vacuum for the American choreographers who needed suitable music to score their own nationalistic dance repertory.[49]
In keeping with the wartime period, Copland’s "Piano Sonata" (1941) was a piece characterized as “grim, nervous, elegiac, with pervasive bell-like tolling of alarm and mourning”. It was later adapted to "Day on Earth", a landmark American dance by Doris Humphrey.[50]
Copland started to publish some of his lectures in the 1930s, "What to Listen for in Music" being one of the most notable of his writings.[51] He also took a leadership role in the American Composers Alliance, whose mission was “to regularize and collect all fees pertaining to performance of their copyrighted music” and “to stimulate interest in the performance of American music”.[52] Copland eventually moved over to rival ASCAP.[53] Through the collection of his royalty fees and with his great success from 1940 on, Copland amassed a multi-million dollar fortune by the time of his death.[54]
The decade of the 1940s was arguably Copland’s most productive and it firmly established his worldwide fame. His two ballet scores for "Rodeo" (1942) and "Appalachian Spring" (1944) were huge successes. His pieces Lincoln Portrait and Fanfare for the Common Man have become patriotic standards (See Popular works, below). Also important was Copland’s Third Symphony, composed in a two-year period from 1944 to 1946, his foremost symphony and the most popular American symphony of the 20th Century.[55]
In 1945, Copland contributed to "Jubilee Variation", a work commissioned by the Cincinnati Symphony in which ten America composers collaborated, but the piece is seldom heard in the concert hall.[56] Copland’s "In the Beginning" (1947) is a choral work using the first seven verses of the second chapter of Genesis from the King James Version of the Bible and a masterpiece of the choral repertory.[57]
Copland’s "Clarinet Concerto" (1948), scored for solo clarinet, strings, harp, and piano, was a commission piece for bandleader and clarinetist Benny Goodman, and a complement to Copland’s earlier jazzy work, the "Piano Concerto" (1926).[58] Continuing with jazz influenced works, Copland wrote two short pieces, and combining them with to early works, created "Four Piano Blues", an introspective composition.[59]
Copland completed the 1940s with two film scores, one for William Wyler's 1949 film, The Heiress, and his score for the film adaptation of John Steinbeck's novel The Red Pony.[60]
In 1949, he returned to Europe to find Pierre Boulez dominating the group of post-War radical musicians.[61] He also met with the proponents of the twelve-tone school (Schoenberg, Webern, and Berg) and he found himself in greater sympathy with them than with the French, who were drifting too far from classical principles to suit his taste and producing “ a chaotic impression”.[62]
1950s and 1960s
In 1950, Copland received a Fulbright scholarship to study in Rome, Italy, which he did the following year. Around this time, he also composed his Piano Quartet, adopting Schoenberg’s twelve-tone method of composition, and Old American Songs (1950), premiered by William Warfield.[63]
Because of the political climate of that era, A Lincoln Portrait was withdrawn from the 1953 inaugural concert for President Eisenhower. That same year, Copland was called before Congress where he testified that he was never a communist.[64]
Despite the difficulties that his suspected Communist sympathies posed, Copland nonetheless traveled extensively during the 1950s and early 1960s, observing the avant-garde stylings of Europe while experiencing the new school of Soviet music. Additionally, he was rather taken with the work of Toru Takemitsu while in Japan, and began a correspondence that would last over the next decade. Copland wrote that the Japanese composer “He has the ‘pure gold’ touch, he chooses his notes carefully and meaningfully.”[65] Copland also gained exposure to the latest musical trends in Poland and Scandinavia. In observing these new musical forms, Copland revised his text "The New Music" with comments on the styles that he encountered. In particular, while Copland explained the importance of the work of John Cage and others (in his chapter titled “The Music of Chance”), he found that these radical trends in music which appealed to those “who enjoy teetering on the edge of chaos” were less likely to gain the appreciation of a wider audience “who envisage art as a bulwark against the irrationality of man’s nature.” As he summarized, “I’ve spent most of my life trying to get the right note in the right place. Just throwing it open to chance seems to go against my natural instincts.”[66]
In 1954, Copland received a commission from Richard Rogers and Oscar Hammerstein to create music for the opera "The Tender Land", based on James Agee’s "Let Us Now Praise Famous Men".[67] Copland had been leery of writing an opera, being especially aware of the pitfalls of that form, including weak libretti and demanding production values.[68] Nevertheless, Copland decided to try his hand at “la forme fatale”, especially since the 1950s were boom times for American playwriting with Arthur Miller, Clifford Odets, and Thorton Wilder doing some of their best works.[69] Originally two acts, later "The Tender Land" was expanded to three. As he feared, critics found the libretto to be the opera’s weak spot and he later stated, “I admit that if I have one regret it is that I never did write a ‘grand opera’.”[70] In spite of its weaknesses, the opera has established itself as one of the few American operas in the standard repertory.
Copland exerted a major influence on the compositional style of his friend and protégé Leonard Bernstein, and a whole generation of American composers as well. Bernstein was considered the finest conductor of Copland's works and cites Copland’s “aesthetic, simplicity with originality” as being his strongest and most influential traits.[71]
Later life
Copland found himself conducting more and composing less from the 1960s onward. Though not enamored with the prospect, Copland found himself without new ideas for composition, saying “It was exactly as if someone had simply turned off a faucet.”[72] Copland was a frequent guest conductor of orchestras in the U.S. and the UK. He made a series of recordings of his music, especially during the 1970s, primarily for Columbia Records. In 1960, RCA Victor released Copland's recordings with the Boston Symphony Orchestra of the orchestral suites from Appalachian Spring and The Tender Land; these recordings were later reissued on CD, as were most of Copland's Columbia recordings (by Sony).
He deteriorated through the 1980s and died of Alzheimer's disease and respiratory failure in North Tarrytown, New York (now Sleepy Hollow), on December 2, 1990. Much of his large estate was bequeathed to the creation of the Aaron Copland Fund for Composers, which gives out over $600,000 per year to performing groups.[73]
Personal life
A moral conservative by nature, Copland was a calm, affable, modest and mild-mannered man, who masked his feelings. Even friends found it hard to crack his façade. Though shy, he preferred to be in a crowd than alone. He lived simply, and approached composing in the same manner. He was an avid reader. He always remained thrifty, even after he achieved substantial wealth. In company Copland could be “almost devilishly droll” and fun-loving. His tact served him well in his private life and in his public life as a moderator, committee man, and teacher.[74] Copland was a constant and diligent worker and a night owl, who composed primarily at the piano and at a relatively slow pace. He was careful in assembling and storing his documents and scores, as well, so he could later find and re-use earlier ideas and themes.[75]
Deciding not to follow the example of his father, a solid Democrat, Copland never enrolled as a member of any political party; but he espoused a general progressive view and had strong ties with numerous colleagues and friends in the Popular Front, including Odetts.[76] Copland supported the Communist Party USA ticket during the 1936 presidential election, at the height of his involvement with The Group Theater and remained a committed opponent of militarism and the Cold War, which he regarded as having been instigated by the United States. He condemned it as, "almost worse for art than the real thing". Throw the artist "into a mood of suspicion, ill-will, and dread that typifies the cold war attitude and he'll create nothing".[77] In keeping with these attitudes, Copland was a strong supporter of the Presidential candidacy of Henry A. Wallace on the Progressive Party ticket. As a result, he was later investigated by the FBI during the Red scare of the 1950s and found himself blacklisted. Copland was included on an FBI list of 151 artists thought to have Communist associations. Joseph McCarthy and Roy Cohn questioned Copland about his lecturing abroad, neglecting completely Copland’s works which made a virtue of American values.[78] Outraged by the accusations, many members of the musical community held up Copland's music as a banner of his patriotism. The investigations ceased in 1955 and were closed in 1975. Though taxing of his time, energy, and emotional state, Copland’s career and international artistic reputation were not seriously affected by the McCarthy probes.[79] In any case, beginning in 1950, Copland, who had been appalled at Stalin's persecution of Shostakovich and other artists, began resigning from participation in leftist groups. He decried the lack of artistic freedom in the Soviet Union and in his 1954 Norton lecture, asserted that loss of freedom under Soviet Communism deprived artists of "the immemorial right of the artist to be wrong". He began to vote Democratic, first for Stevenson and then Kennedy.[80]
Copland is documented as a gay man in author Howard Pollack's biography, Aaron Copland: The Life and Work of an Uncommon Man. Like many of his contemporaries he guarded his privacy, especially in regard to his homosexuality, providing very few written details about his private life. However, he was one of the few composers of his stature to live openly and travel with his lovers, most of whom were talented, much younger men. Among Copland's love affairs, most of which lasted for only a few years yet became enduring friendships, were ones with photographer Viktor Kraft, artist Alvin Ross, pianist Paul Moor, dancer Erik Johns and composer John Brodbin Kennedy[81] .
References
1. ^ Howard Pollack, "Aaron Copland", Henry Holt and Co., New York, 1999, p. 15, ISBN 0-8050-4909-6
2. ^ The Rest is Noise: Listening To The Twentieth Century, First Edition, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2007, p.266
3. ^ Pollack, p. 26
4. ^ Julia Smith, "Aaron Copland", E. P. Dutton & Co., New York, 1953, p. 15
5. ^ Pollack, p. 19
6. ^ Smith, p. 17
7. ^ Pollack, p. 26
8. ^ Pollack, p. 32
9. ^ Smith, p. 18
10. ^ Pollack, p. 33
11. ^ Smith, p. 23
12. ^ Pollack, p. 35
13. ^ Pollack, p. 37
14. ^ Pollack, p. 39
15. ^ Smith, p. 25, 31
16. ^ Smith, p. 30
17. ^ Pollack, p. 237
18. ^ Pollack, pp. 33-5
19. ^ Smith, p. 33
20. ^ Smith, p. 41
21. ^ Pollack, p. 41
22. ^ Pollack, p. 47
23. ^ Pollack, p. 51
24. ^ Pollack, pp. 53-4
25. ^ Smith, p. 62
26. ^ Pollack, p. 55
27. ^ Pollack, p. 89
28. ^ Pollack, p. 90
29. ^ Pollack, p. 90
30. ^ Berger, Arthur. (1953) Aaron Copland Oxford University Press
31. ^ Pollack, p. 101
32. ^ Pollack, p. 103
33. ^ Pollack, p. 111
34. ^ Pollack, p. 164
35. ^ Pollack, p. 170
36. ^ Pollack, p. 178, 215
37. ^ Smith, p. 162
38. ^ Pollack, p. 303
39. ^ Pollack, p. 178, 226
40. ^ Pollack, p. 310
41. ^ Pollack, p. 258
42. ^ Pollack, p. 259
43. ^ Pollack, p. 267
44. ^ Pollack, p. 331
45. ^ Pollack, p. 92
46. ^ Smith, p. 169
47. ^ Smith, p. 187
48. ^ Smith, p. 184
49. ^ Smith, p. 185
50. ^ Pollack, p. 351, 355
51. ^ Smith, p. 169
52. ^ Pollack, p. 91
53. ^ Smith, p. 182
54. ^ Pollack, p. 93
55. ^ Pollack, p. 410, 418
56. ^ Pollack, p. 285
57. ^ Pollack, p. 421
58. ^ Pollack, p. 424
59. ^ Pollack, p. 427
60. ^ Smith, p. 202
61. ^ Pollack, p. 460
62. ^ Pollack, p. 462, 465
63. ^ Pollack, p. 467
64. ^ Pollack, p. 456
65. ^ Pollack, p. 464
66. ^ Pollack, p. 465
67. ^ Smith, p. 217
68. ^ Pollack, p. 470
69. ^ Pollack, p. 470
70. ^ Pollack, p. 478
71. ^ Smith, p. 289
72. ^ Pollack, p. 516
73. ^ Pollack, p. 548
74. ^ Pollack, pp. 4-5
75. ^ Pollack, p. 9
76. ^ Smith, p. 60
77. ^ Pollack, p. 284-85
78. ^ Pollack, p. 452, 456
79. ^ Pollack, p. 458
80. ^ Pollack, p. 285
81. ^ Aldrich and Wotherspoon, Who's who in gay and lesbian history, London, 2000
82. ^ Pollack, p. 36
83. ^ Smith, p. 30
84. ^ Pollack, p. 41
85. ^ Pollack, p. 49
86. ^ Pollack, p. 50
87. ^ Pollack, p. 49
88. ^ Pollack, p. 59
89. ^ Pollack, p. 60
90. ^ Smith, p. 39
91. ^ Smith, p. 63
92. ^ Smith, p. 50
93. ^ Pollack, p. 65
94. ^ Pollack, p. 65
95. ^ Andy Trudeau. "The Copland Story: An Artistic Biography".
96. ^ According to Charles Hazlewood in Discovering Music from 32:20 to 33:45
97. ^ Pollack, p. 65
98. ^ Pollack, p. 71
99. ^ Smith, p. 60
100. ^ Pollack, p. 120
101. ^ Pollack, p. 116
102. ^ Pollack, p. 120
103. ^ Pollack, pp. 116-117
104. ^ Pollack, p. 115
105. ^ Pollack, p. 120
106. ^ Smith, pp. 292-4
107. ^ Pollack, p. 530
108. ^ Smith, pp. 223-5
109. ^ Pollack, p. 481
110. ^ Pollack, p. 41
111. ^ Smith, p. 51
112. ^ Pollack, p. 44
113. ^ Pollack, p. 86
114. ^ Pollack, pp. 81-82
115. ^ Pollack, pp. 121-122
116. ^ Pollack, p. 123
117. ^ Pollack, p. 114
118. ^ Pollack, p. 298
119. ^ Pollack, p. 299
120. ^ Pollack, p. 300
121. ^ Pollack, p. 302
122. ^ Pollack, p. 317
123. ^ Pollack, p. 315
124. ^ Smith, p. 189
125. ^ Pollack, p. 323
126. ^ Smith, p. 188
127. ^ Pollack, p. 325
128. ^ Pollack, p. 361
129. ^ Pollack, p. 362
130. ^ Pollack, p. 412
131. ^ Pollack, p. 357
132. ^ Pollack, p. 358
133. ^ Pollack, p. 361
134. ^ collected in 1937 by Alan and Elizabeth Lomax and published in Our Singing Country (1941). See Judith Tick's preface to John A. and Alan Lomax and Ruth Crawford Seeger's, Our Singing Country Folk Songs and Ballads (Dover, 2000), p. xvii.
135. ^ Smith, p. 193
136. ^ Pollack, p. 367
137. ^ Pollack, p. 372
138. ^ Grout, Donald Jay, & Palisca, Claud V. (1996). A History of Western Music (5th ed.). New York & London: W. W. Norton and Company.
139. ^ Pollack, p. 388
140. ^ Smith, p. 195
141. ^ Pollack, p. 402
142. ^ Pollack, p. 410
143. ^ Pollack, p. 410
144. ^ Pollack, p. 416
145. ^ Pollack, p. 410
146. ^ Pollack, p. 417
147. ^ Pollack, p. 418
148. ^ Pollack, p. 445
149. ^ Pollack, p. 462
150. ^ Pollack, p. 481
151. ^ Pollack, p. 482
152. ^ Pollack, pp. 484-5
153. ^ Pollack, pp. 487-515
154. ^ Pollack, p. 336
155. ^ Smith, p. 179
156. ^ Pollack, p. 348
157. ^ Pollack, p. 337
158. ^ Pollack, p. 340
159. ^ Pollack, p. 343
160. ^ Pollack, p. 340
161. ^ Pollack, p. 90
162. ^ Pollack, p. 349
163. ^ Pollack, p. 342
164. ^ Pollack, p. 343
165. ^ Pollack, p. 349
166. ^ Pollack, p. 350
167. ^ Smith, p. 215
168. ^ Smith, p. 202
169. ^ Smith, p. 201
170. ^ Pollack, p. 497
171. ^ Smith, p. 265
172. ^ Smith, pp. 264-5
173. ^ Smith, p. 264
174. ^ Smith, p. 285
175. ^ Smith, p. 290
176. ^ Pollack, pp. 534-5
177. ^ Pollack, p. 536
178. ^ Pollack, p. 537
179. ^ Pollack, p. 538
180. ^ Pollack, p. 533
181. ^ Pollack, p. 535
182. ^ Pollack, p. 536
183. ^ Pollack, p. 539
184. ^ Pollack, p. 539
185. ^ Pollack, p. 540
186. ^ Pollack, p. 535
187. ^ "The University of Pennsylvania Glee Club Award of Merit Recipients".
188. ^ Pollack, p. 404
189. ^ Smith, p. 201
* Kamien, Roger (1997). Music: An Appreciation, 3rd edition, Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill College. ISBN 0-07-036521-0.
* Carol J. Oja & Judith Tick (Ed.): Aaron Copland and His World. Princeton University Press 2005
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